MATTER ANTI-MATTER SPACE CRAFT PROPULSION
The history of antimatter begins with a young physicist named Paul A.M.Dirac (1902-1984) and the strange implications of a mathematical equation. This British physicist formulated a theory for the motion of the electrons in electric and magnetic fields.
Such theories had been formulated before, but what was unique about Dirac’s was that his included the effects of Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity. This theory was formulated by him in 1928.Mean while he wrote down an equation, which combined quantum theory and special relativity, to describe the behavior of the electron. Dirac’s equation won him a Nobel prize in I 933,but also posed another problem; just at the equation x2 = 4 can have two solutions (x 2, x = -2). So Dirac’s equation would have two solutions, one for an electron with positive energy, and one for an electron with negative energy. This led theory led to a surprising prediction that the electron must have an “antiparticle” having the same mass but a positive electric charge.
1n 1932, Carl Anderson observed this new particle experimentally and it was named “positron”. This was the first known example of antimatter. In 1955, the anti proton was produced at the Berkeley Bevatron, and in 1995, scientists created the first anti hydrogen atom at the CERN research facility in Europe by combining the anti proton with a positron Dirac’s equation predicted that all of the fundamental particles in nature must have a corresponding “Antiparticle”.
In each case, the masses of the particle and anti particle are identical and other properties are nearly identical. But in all cases, the mathematical signs of some property are reversed. Anti protons, for example have the same mass as a proton, but the opposite electric charge. Since Dirac’s time, scores of these particle-antiparticle pairings have been observed. Even particles that have no electrical charge such as the neutron have anti particle.
In each case, the masses of the particle and anti particle are identical and other properties are nearly identical. But in all cases, the mathematical signs of some property are reversed. Anti protons, for example have the same mass as a proton, but the opposite electric charge. Since Dirac’s time, scores of these particle-antiparticle pairings have been observed. Even particles that have no electrical charge such as the neutron have anti particle.
ANTIMATTER PRODUCTION
Anti protons do not exist in nature and currently are produced only by energetic particle collision conducted at large accelerator facilities (e.g. Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Fermi Lab, in US or CERN in Geneva, Switzerland). This process typically involves accelerating protons to relativistic velocities (very near to speed of light) and slamming them into a metal (e.g. Tungsten) target.
The high-energy protons are slowed or stopped by collisions with nuclei of the target; the kinetic energy of the rapidly moving protons is converted into matter in the form of various subatomic particles, some of which are anti protons. Finally, the anti protons are electro magnetically separated from the other particles, then they are captured and cooled (slowed) by a Radio-Frequency Quadrapole (RFQ) linear accelerator (operated as a decelerator) and then stored in a storage cell called as a Penning Trap.
Note that anti protons annihilate spontaneously when brought into contact with normal matter, thus they must be stored and handled carefully. Currently the highest anti proton production level is in the order of nano-grams per year.
MECHANICAL VIBRATION ANALYSIS
ABSTRACT
A laser-based contact less displacement measurement system is used for data acquisition to analyze the mechanical vibrations exhibited by vibrating structures and machines. The analysis of these vibrations requires a number of signal processing operations which include the determination of the system conditions through a classification of various observed vibration signatures and the detection of changes in the vibration signature in order to identify possible trends. This information is also combined with the physical characteristics and contextual data (operating mode, etc.) of the system under surveillance to allow the evaluation of certain characteristics like fatigue, abnormal stress, life span, etc., resulting in a high level classification of mechanical behaviors and structural faults according to the type of application.
Smart sensors or latest generation sensors are now use for vibration measurements. Where the first generation sensors are piezoelectric accelerometers, second generation sensors are modification of piezoelectric accelerometers and latest are the smart sensors. Third-generation smart sensors use mixed mode analogue and digital operations to perform simple unidirectional communication with the condition monitoring equipment.
INTRODUCTION
The study of vibrations generated by mechanical structures and electrical machines are very important. The advent of machines and processes that are more and more complex and the ever increasing exploitation and production costs have favored the emergence of several application fields requiring vibration analysis. Among these application fields, we find machine monitoring, modal analysis, quality control, and environment tests. These functions are used in fields such as aeronautics, space industry, automotive industry, energy production, civil engineering, and audio equipment.
The signal processing application described here uses a laser-based vibrometer in order to analyze the vibrations exhibited by mechanical systems. This technique can be used in the numerous applications mentioned above. The problem is to develop an intelligent system that has the ability to determine the system conditions based on a classification of the possible vibration signatures, detect changes in the vibration signature, and analyze their trends.
The classification of the various possible vibration signatures requires a priori knowledge of the mechanical system under healthy conditions as well as for the various fault conditions; when possible a mathematical model of the system should be provided. The latter is often crucial for the good interpretation of the observations, since it predicts the dynamic behavior of the structure and thus the healthy vibration signature.
Vibration spectra are in general “peaky” due to either the periodic nature of the system’s excitation or to the natural resonance properties of the mechanical system. Changes in a vibration signal can result from a variation of the amplitude, frequency, and/or phase of one or many of the components. Moreover, new peaks may add to the existing spectrum, or some peaks may fade out. Changes can also appear in the form of short transients or spikes in the time domain. At the extreme, if the vibrations become so strong that the structure actually starts to move, then the overall average level of vibration would change, that is, a DC component would appear.
All of the above changes may occur gradually, like fatigue stress slowly deteriorating the material’s properties, or they may occur suddenly, like the rupture of a mechanical part within a machine. They may also occur periodically or in a random fashion depending on the process generating the vibrations. For multiple state systems, changes must be interpreted carefully. For example, if the operating speed of a rotating machine is raised from A to B, the vibration analysis system should not declare the observed changes as being the result of a mechanical failure, but should adapt itself to this new mode of operation.
Methanol Fueled Marine Diesel Engine
INTRODUCTION
Energetic research on methanol-fueled automobile engines has been forwarded from the viewpoints of low environmental pollution and the use of alternate fuel since the oil crisis, and they are now being tested on vehicles in various countries in the world. Various technical issues have already been solved or the prospect is bright for them. It can be said that this type of engine is very close to completion at present. On the other hand, it is an actual situation in the marine engine field that the research on this type of engine has hardly been tested so far, since it has seldom been evaluated from the viewpoint of environmental pollution control because it is used at sea and the idea to use methanol on marine engines is not established yet.
However, IMO (International Maritime Organization) is now investigating to include exhaust gas from ships in the objects to be controlled from the viewpoint of environmental protection on a worldwide scale that has been loudly emphasized recently. In case clean methanol is used as fuel, work for handling complicated machines such as centrifuges for heavy fuel oil and for treating sludge discharged from them can be avoided, and further it can be expected to lessen frequent engine maintenance work. It has therefore been strongly desired to use methanol on marine diesel engines from mainly the viewpoint of pursuing economy. Though knowledge which has been gained with automobile engines can be used in principle, many subjects to be solved still remain, since marine diesel engines have large bores and mean effective pressures of more than two times as much, their operating conditions are extremely severe and they need high reliability and durability in comparison with automobile engines.
Methanol has a cetane number of three and, consequently, extremely low ignitability. Marine engines with spark ignition can not exhibit mean effective pressures as high as those of ordinary diesel engines because of the high rate of pressure rise during ignition and they can not permit misfiring because of the large volume of their exhaust systems.
The dual fuel injection system which has actual service results on large-sized gas engines has therefore been selected as the ignition system for this research. Since methanol is not only corrosive but also insufficient in lubricating ability, elemental research has been needed to solve these issues
The dual fuel injection system which has actual service results on large-sized gas engines has therefore been selected as the ignition system for this research. Since methanol is not only corrosive but also insufficient in lubricating ability, elemental research has been needed to solve these issues
EXPERIMENTAL ENGINE
A single cylinder, four-stroke, direct-injection type diesel engine having a cylinder bore of 250mm has been modified so as to be suitable for this experiment. The rated speed of this experimental engine has been set lower than that of the original type so that the results of this research can be utilized as widely as possible.
The combustion system of the experimental engine is of a dual fuel injection type such that the main fuel injection valve (methanol) is located at the centre of the combustion chamber and atomized fuel from this valve is ignited by the pilot oil injection from the secondary injection valve (oil) located on the cylinder head near the periphery of the combustion space.
This system has been adopted from the reasons that it has the high stability of ignition, good low load performance and high reliability, and that it serves as a measure to prevent corrosion, since combustion deposits made by pilot oil injection cover the inside surface of the combustion chamber. The methanol injection pump is of a forced lubrication type to prevent lubrication troubles. Since methanol is highly volatile, the auxiliary equipment of the methanol system such as the fuel tank, strainer, supply pump and valves have been installed in an enclosed chamber (a fuel supply unit) as shown in Fig.2. A fan and a gas detector have been installed to sufficiently ventilate the inside of the unit for safety. Pipe joints are also of special structure to prevent fuel leakage.
This system has been adopted from the reasons that it has the high stability of ignition, good low load performance and high reliability, and that it serves as a measure to prevent corrosion, since combustion deposits made by pilot oil injection cover the inside surface of the combustion chamber. The methanol injection pump is of a forced lubrication type to prevent lubrication troubles. Since methanol is highly volatile, the auxiliary equipment of the methanol system such as the fuel tank, strainer, supply pump and valves have been installed in an enclosed chamber (a fuel supply unit) as shown in Fig.2. A fan and a gas detector have been installed to sufficiently ventilate the inside of the unit for safety. Pipe joints are also of special structure to prevent fuel leakage.
Electro-Mechanical Brake
ABSTRACT
Brake performance can be divided into two distinct classes:
1) Base brake performance
2) Controlled brake performance.
1) Base brake performance
2) Controlled brake performance.
A base brake event can be described as a normal or typical stop in which the driver maintains the vehicle in its intended direction at a controlled deceleration level that does not closely approach wheel lock. All other braking events where additional intervention may be necessary, such as wheel brake pressure control to prevent lockup, application of a wheel brake to transfer torque across an open differential, or
application of an induced torque to one or two selected wheels to correct an under- or over steering condition, may be classified as controlled brake performance. Statistics from the field indicate the majority of braking events stem from base brake applications and as such can be classified as the single most important function. From this perspective, it can be of interest to compare modern-day Electro-Hydraulic Brake (EHB) hydraulic systems with a conventional vacuum-boosted brake apply system and note the various design options used to achieve performance and reliability
objectives.
application of an induced torque to one or two selected wheels to correct an under- or over steering condition, may be classified as controlled brake performance. Statistics from the field indicate the majority of braking events stem from base brake applications and as such can be classified as the single most important function. From this perspective, it can be of interest to compare modern-day Electro-Hydraulic Brake (EHB) hydraulic systems with a conventional vacuum-boosted brake apply system and note the various design options used to achieve performance and reliability
objectives.
INTRODUCTION
What is EHB System?
The next brake concept. This system is a system which senses the driver’s will of braking through the pedal simulator and controls the braking pressures to each wheels. The system is also a hydraulic Brake by Wire system.
Many of the vehicle sub-systems in today’s modern vehicles are being converted into “by-wire” type systems. This normally implies a function, which in the past was activated directly through a purely mechanical device, is now implemented through electro-mechanical means by way of signal transfer to and from an Electronic Control Unit. Optionally, the ECU may apply additional “intelligence” based upon input from other sensors outside of the driver’s influence. Electro-Hydraulic Brake is not a true “by-wire” system with the thought process that the physical wires do not extend all the way to the wheel brakes. However, in the true sense of the definition, any EHB vehicle may be braked with an electrical “joystick” completely independent of the traditional brake pedal. It just so happens that hydraulic fluid is used to transmit energy from the actuator to the wheel brakes. This configuration offers the distinct advantage that the current production wheel brakes may be maintained while an integral, manually applied, hydraulic failsafe backup system may be directly
incorporated in the EHB system. The cost and complexity of this approach typically compares favourably to an Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system, which requires significant investment in vehicle electrical failsafe architecture, with some needing a 42 volt power source. Therefore, EHB may be classified a “stepping stone”
technology to full Electro-Mechanical Brakes.
incorporated in the EHB system. The cost and complexity of this approach typically compares favourably to an Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system, which requires significant investment in vehicle electrical failsafe architecture, with some needing a 42 volt power source. Therefore, EHB may be classified a “stepping stone”
technology to full Electro-Mechanical Brakes.
Fractal Robots
Definition
In order to respond to rapidly changing environment and market, it is imperative to have such capabilities as flexibility, adaptability, reusability, etc. for the manufacturing system. The fractal manufacturing system is one of the new manufacturing paradigms for this purpose. A basic component of fractal manufacturing system, called a basic fractal unit (BFU), consists of five functional modules such as an observer, an analyzer, an organizer, a resolver, and a reporter. Each module autonomously cooperates and negotiates with others while processing its jobs by using the agent technology. The resulting architecture has a high degree of self-similarity, one of the main characteristics of the fractal. What this actually means in this case is something that when you look at a part of it, it is similar to the whole object.
Some of the fractal specific characteristics are:
Self-similarity
Self-organization
Goal-orientation
FRACTAL ROBOTS
Fractal Robot is a science that promises to revolutionize technology in a way that has never been witnessed before. Fractal Robots are objects made from cubic bricks that can be controlled by a computer to change shape and to reconfigure themselves into objects of different shapes. These cubic motorized bricks can be programmed to move and shuffle themselves to change shape to make objects like a house potentially in few seconds. It is exactly like kids playing with Lego bricks and making a toy house or a toy bridge by snapping together Lego bricks, except that here we are using a computer.
This technology has the potential to penetrate every field of human work like construction, medicine, research and others. Fractal robots can enable buildings to build within a day, help perform sensitive medical operations and can assist in laboratory experiments. Also, Fractal Robots have built-in self repair which means they continue to work without human intervention. Also, this technology brings down the manufacturing price down dramatically.
Self-similarity
Self-organization
Goal-orientation
FRACTAL ROBOTS
Fractal Robot is a science that promises to revolutionize technology in a way that has never been witnessed before. Fractal Robots are objects made from cubic bricks that can be controlled by a computer to change shape and to reconfigure themselves into objects of different shapes. These cubic motorized bricks can be programmed to move and shuffle themselves to change shape to make objects like a house potentially in few seconds. It is exactly like kids playing with Lego bricks and making a toy house or a toy bridge by snapping together Lego bricks, except that here we are using a computer.
This technology has the potential to penetrate every field of human work like construction, medicine, research and others. Fractal robots can enable buildings to build within a day, help perform sensitive medical operations and can assist in laboratory experiments. Also, Fractal Robots have built-in self repair which means they continue to work without human intervention. Also, this technology brings down the manufacturing price down dramatically.
A Fractal Robot resembles itself, i.e. wherever you look at, any part of its body will be similar to the whole object. The robot can be animated around its joints in a uniform manner. Such robots can be straight forward geometric patterns/images that look more like natural structures such as plants. This patented product however has a cubical structure.A fractal cube can be of any size. The smallest expected size is between 1000 and 10,000 atoms wide. These cubes are embedded with computer chips that control their movement.
FRACTAL ROBOT MECHANISM
FRACTAL ROBOT MECHANISM
SIMPLE CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
Considerable effort has been spent in making the robotic cube as simple as possible after the invention had been conceived. The design is such that it has the fewest possible moving parts so that they can be mass produced. Materials requirements have been made as flexible as possible so that they can be built from metals and plastics which are cheaply available in industrial nations but also from ceramics and clays which are environmentally friendlier and more readily available in developing nations.
The cube therefore is hollow and the plates have all the mechanisms. Each of these face plates have electrical contact pads that allow power and data signals to be routed from one robotic cube to another. They also have 45 degree petals that push out of the surface to engage the neighboring face that allows one robotic cube to lock to its neighbors.
The contact pads are arranged symmetrically around four edges to allow for rotational symmetry .
The contact pads are arranged symmetrically around four edges to allow for rotational symmetry .
Running gearing
INTRODUCTION
Running gearing is a new type of mechanism designed to transform progressive motion into rotary motion. The term "running gearing" is only a temporary name given to the mechanism and the mechanism has not yet been given its definite name.
The running gearing is developed by Mr. V.A.Vorgushin, an engineer, a M.T.S. in co-authorship with Mr. P.A. Shishkin, an engineer.
The technology of a running gearing makes it possible to withdraw from an engine its main component - a crank mechanism and to improve the engine's parameters.
The technology of the running gear can be applied to all formerly manufactured engines, equipped with crank mechanisms. Both modernization of the available stock of engines and realization of new projects may become a very profitable business for a number of years.
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE RUNNING GEARING
The arrangement of the engine is shown in figure-1. The running gearing is made up of toothed gear 1 seated on the engine shaft and being in constant mesh with gear frame 2. Gear frame 2 is shaped consisting of two racks of equal length and two toothed semicircles of equal radii. By this alternative the gear frame is connected to piston 3 of cylinder block 5 via a motion unit of Z axis.
For fixing of the extreme left and the extreme right positions of gear frame 2 (fixing of L dimension as per fig.) the device is equipped with a mechanism of dynamic fixing (not shown in fig.1).
A mechanism of dynamic fixing is the cam-type. It comprises a cam itself and two linear rests. The working face of the cam represents an arc of the sector of a circle. The cam and toothed gear 1 are seated on the axis of rotation of the shaft and they are stationary relative to each other. Linear rests are fixed along the gear racks; working faces of linear rests are the surfaces facing the axis of symmetry of the gear frame.
COMPARISON WITH CRANK-ENGINE
The comparison of the running gearing engine with conventional crank engine can be done under four categories. They are
1. Kinematics.
2. Gas dynamics.
3. Dimension and mass.
4. Production cost
2. Gas dynamics.
3. Dimension and mass.
4. Production cost
Welding Robots
Definition
Welding technology has obtained access virtually to every branch of manufacturing; to name a few bridges, ships, rail road equipments, building constructions, boilers, pressure vessels, pipe lines, automobiles, aircrafts, launch vehicles, and nuclear power plants. Especially in India, welding technology needs constant upgrading, particularly in field of industrial and power generation boilers, high voltage generation equipment and transformers and in nuclear aero-space industry.
Computers have already entered the field of welding and the situation today is that the welding engineer who has little or no computer skills will soon be hard-pressed to meet the welding challenges of our technological times. In order for the computer solution to be implemented, educational institutions cannot escape their share of responsibilities.
Automation and robotics are two closely related technologies. In an industrial context, we can define automation as a technology that is concerned with the use of mechanical, electronics and computer-based systems in the operation and control of production. Examples of this technology include transfer lines, mechanized assembly machines, feed back control systems, numerically controlled machine tools, and robots. Accordingly, robotics is a form of industrial automation.
There are three broad classes of industrial automation: fixed automaton, programmable automation, and flexible automation. Fixed automation is used when the volume of production is very high and it is therefore appropriate to design specialized equipment to process the product very efficiently and at high production rates. A good example of fixed automation can be found in the automobile industry, where highly integrated transfer lines consisting of several dozen work stations are used to perform machining operations on engine and transmission components. The economics of fixed automation are such that the cost of the special equipment can be divided over a large number of units, and resulting unit cost are low relative to alternative methods of production.
The risk encountered with fixed automation is this; since the initial investment cost is high, if the volume of production turns out to be lower than anticipated, then the unit costs become greater than anticipated. Another problem in fixed automation is that the equipment is specially designed to produce the one product, and after that products life cycle is finished, the equipment is likely to become obsolete. For products with short life cycle, the use of fixed automation represents a big gamble.
Iontophoresis
Definition
Iontophoresis is an effective and painless method of delivering medication to a localized tissue area by applying electrical current to a solution of the medication. The delivered dose depends on the current flowing and its duration.
Iontophoresis is an effective and painless method of delivering medication to a localized tissue area by applying electrical current to a solution of the medication. The delivered dose depends on the current flowing and its duration.
Overview
Iontophoresis is a recognized therapeutic method for delivering ionic compounds, i.e. drugs, into and through the skin by applying electrical current. It has proven to be a beneficial treatment for many localized skin disorders such as; nail diseases, Herpies lesions, psoriasis, eczematous, and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. The method has also been reported useful for topical anesthesia to the skin prior to cut-down for artificial kidney dialysis, insertion of tracheotomy tubes and infiltration of lidocaine into the skin prior to venipuncture. Treatment of various musculoskeletal disorders with anti-inflammatory agents has been reported in the literature. Iontophoresis enhances the transdermal delivery of ionized drugs through the skin's outermost layer (stratum corneum) which is the main barrier to drug transport. The absorption rate of the drug is increased, however, once the drug passes through the skin barrier natural diffusion and circulation are required to shuttle the drug to its proper location. The mechanism by which iontophoresis works is based upon the knowledge that like electrical charges repel. Application of a positive current from an electrode to a solution applied to a skin surface will drive the positively charged drug ions away from the electrode and into the skin. Obviously, negatively charged ions will behave in the same manner.
Iontophoresis is a recognized therapeutic method for delivering ionic compounds, i.e. drugs, into and through the skin by applying electrical current. It has proven to be a beneficial treatment for many localized skin disorders such as; nail diseases, Herpies lesions, psoriasis, eczematous, and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. The method has also been reported useful for topical anesthesia to the skin prior to cut-down for artificial kidney dialysis, insertion of tracheotomy tubes and infiltration of lidocaine into the skin prior to venipuncture. Treatment of various musculoskeletal disorders with anti-inflammatory agents has been reported in the literature. Iontophoresis enhances the transdermal delivery of ionized drugs through the skin's outermost layer (stratum corneum) which is the main barrier to drug transport. The absorption rate of the drug is increased, however, once the drug passes through the skin barrier natural diffusion and circulation are required to shuttle the drug to its proper location. The mechanism by which iontophoresis works is based upon the knowledge that like electrical charges repel. Application of a positive current from an electrode to a solution applied to a skin surface will drive the positively charged drug ions away from the electrode and into the skin. Obviously, negatively charged ions will behave in the same manner.
Introduction
The method of iontophoresis was described by Pivati in 1747.Galvani and Volta, two well-known scientists working in the 18th century, combined the knowledge that electricity can move different metal ions, and that movements of ions produce electricity. The method of administrating pharmacological drugs by iontophoresis became popular at the beginning of the 20th century due to the work of Leduc (1900) who introduce the word 'iontotherapy' and formulated the laws for this process. Iontophoresis is defined as the introduction by means of a direct electrical current, of ions of soluble salts into the tissues of the body for therapeutic purposes. It is a technique used to enhance the absorption of drugs across biological tissues, such as the skin. Another method for drug delivery through the skin, called phonophoresis, uses ultrasound instead of an electric current. Both these techniques are complicated because of other processes that occur simultaneously with the delivery of the drug. With the present knowledge about these processes, it is easier to select and prepare appropriate drugs and vehicles for iontophoresis than for phonophoresis.In clinical practice, iontophoresis devices are used primarily for the treatment of inflammatory conditions in skin, muscles, tendons and joints, such as in temperomandibular joint dysfunctions. More recently, iontophoresis has been used in combination with laser Doppler technology as a diagnostic tool in diseases comprising the vascular bed.
The method of iontophoresis was described by Pivati in 1747.Galvani and Volta, two well-known scientists working in the 18th century, combined the knowledge that electricity can move different metal ions, and that movements of ions produce electricity. The method of administrating pharmacological drugs by iontophoresis became popular at the beginning of the 20th century due to the work of Leduc (1900) who introduce the word 'iontotherapy' and formulated the laws for this process. Iontophoresis is defined as the introduction by means of a direct electrical current, of ions of soluble salts into the tissues of the body for therapeutic purposes. It is a technique used to enhance the absorption of drugs across biological tissues, such as the skin. Another method for drug delivery through the skin, called phonophoresis, uses ultrasound instead of an electric current. Both these techniques are complicated because of other processes that occur simultaneously with the delivery of the drug. With the present knowledge about these processes, it is easier to select and prepare appropriate drugs and vehicles for iontophoresis than for phonophoresis.In clinical practice, iontophoresis devices are used primarily for the treatment of inflammatory conditions in skin, muscles, tendons and joints, such as in temperomandibular joint dysfunctions. More recently, iontophoresis has been used in combination with laser Doppler technology as a diagnostic tool in diseases comprising the vascular bed.
Principles of iontophoresis
AsBy definition, iontophoresis is the increased movement of ions in an applied electric field. Iontophoresis is based on the general principle that like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.An external energy source can be used to increase the rate of penetration of drugs through the membrane. When a negatively charged drug is to be delivered across an epithelial barrier which is placed under the negatively charged delivery electrode (cathode) from which it is repelled, to be attracted to the positive electrode placed elsewhere on the body. In anodal iontophoresis (positively charged ions), the electrode orientation is reversed .The choice of drug is of importance depending on whether the compound is unionised or ionised. Non-ionised compounds are generally better absorbed through the skin than ionised substances. The penetration across the skin or other epithelial surfaces is usually slow due to their excellent barrier properties. Many drug candidates for local applications only exist in an ionised form, which makes effective membrane impossible.
AsBy definition, iontophoresis is the increased movement of ions in an applied electric field. Iontophoresis is based on the general principle that like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.An external energy source can be used to increase the rate of penetration of drugs through the membrane. When a negatively charged drug is to be delivered across an epithelial barrier which is placed under the negatively charged delivery electrode (cathode) from which it is repelled, to be attracted to the positive electrode placed elsewhere on the body. In anodal iontophoresis (positively charged ions), the electrode orientation is reversed .The choice of drug is of importance depending on whether the compound is unionised or ionised. Non-ionised compounds are generally better absorbed through the skin than ionised substances. The penetration across the skin or other epithelial surfaces is usually slow due to their excellent barrier properties. Many drug candidates for local applications only exist in an ionised form, which makes effective membrane impossible.
Air Brake System
Description: COMPONENTS OF AN AIR BRAKE SYSTEM:
Air brake system consists of the following components:
Compressor:
The compressor generates the compressed air for the whole system.
Reservoir:
The compressed air from the compressor is stored in the reservoir.
Unloader Valve:
This maintains pressure in the reservoir at 8bar.When the pressure goes above 8 bar it immediately releases the pressurized air to bring the system to 8-bar pressure.
Air Dryer:
This removes the moisture from the atmospheric air and prevents corrosion of the reservoir.
System Protection Valve:
This valve takes care of the whole system. Air from the compressor is given to various channels only through this valve. This valve operates only at 4-bar pressure and once the system pressure goes below 4-bar valve immediately becomes inactive and applies the parking brake to ensure safety.
Dual Brake Valve:
When the driver applies brakes, depending upon the pedal force this valve releases air from one side to another.
Graduated Hand Control Valve:
This valve takes care of the parking brakes.
Brake Chamber:
The air from the reservoir flows through various valves and finally reaches the brake chamber which activates the S-cam in the brake shoe to apply the brakes in the front
Actuators:
The air from the reservoir flows through various valves and finally reaches the brake chamber, which activates the S-cam in the brake shoe to apply the brakes in the rear.
WORKING OF AN AIR BRAKING SYSTEM
Air brakes are used in commercial vehicles, which require a heavier braking effort than that can be applied by the drivers foot. The following layout shows the arrangement of the air braking systems in heavy vehicles. Compressed air from compressor passes through the unloader valve and maintains its pressure. This air is stored in the reservoir. From the reservoir it goes to the Brake Chambers through many brake valves. In the brake chamber this pneumatic force is converted into the mechanical force and then it is converted into the rotational torque by the slack adjuster, which is connected to S-cam. This torque applies air brakes. Pipelines connect the brake system components.
Air brake system consists of the following components:
Compressor:
The compressor generates the compressed air for the whole system.
Reservoir:
The compressed air from the compressor is stored in the reservoir.
Unloader Valve:
This maintains pressure in the reservoir at 8bar.When the pressure goes above 8 bar it immediately releases the pressurized air to bring the system to 8-bar pressure.
Air Dryer:
This removes the moisture from the atmospheric air and prevents corrosion of the reservoir.
System Protection Valve:
This valve takes care of the whole system. Air from the compressor is given to various channels only through this valve. This valve operates only at 4-bar pressure and once the system pressure goes below 4-bar valve immediately becomes inactive and applies the parking brake to ensure safety.
Dual Brake Valve:
When the driver applies brakes, depending upon the pedal force this valve releases air from one side to another.
Graduated Hand Control Valve:
This valve takes care of the parking brakes.
Brake Chamber:
The air from the reservoir flows through various valves and finally reaches the brake chamber which activates the S-cam in the brake shoe to apply the brakes in the front
Actuators:
The air from the reservoir flows through various valves and finally reaches the brake chamber, which activates the S-cam in the brake shoe to apply the brakes in the rear.
WORKING OF AN AIR BRAKING SYSTEM
Air brakes are used in commercial vehicles, which require a heavier braking effort than that can be applied by the drivers foot. The following layout shows the arrangement of the air braking systems in heavy vehicles. Compressed air from compressor passes through the unloader valve and maintains its pressure. This air is stored in the reservoir. From the reservoir it goes to the Brake Chambers through many brake valves. In the brake chamber this pneumatic force is converted into the mechanical force and then it is converted into the rotational torque by the slack adjuster, which is connected to S-cam. This torque applies air brakes. Pipelines connect the brake system components.
Paper Presentations
Advanced grid computing
Abstract
With the furtherance of technology, life is becoming simpler and less demanding. The conglomeration of three major disciplines, Computers, Communications and Electronics unleashes a vast amount of power in terms of technology. In an era of cost-cutting ,when companies are faced with a growing need to maximize and/or improve efficiencies of existing IT investments, organizations are turning to Grid Computing as a strategic solution.
This paper seeks to introduce this Grid Computing as an emerging computing model that provides the ability to perform higher throughput computing by taking advantage of many networked computers to model virtual computer architecture.
Further, it enumerates on how the Grids use the resources of many separate computers connected through a network to solve large-scale computation problems. It explains how the Grids provide the ability to perform computations on large data sets, by breaking them down into many smaller ones, or provide the ability to perform many more computations at once than would be possible on a single computer, by modeling a parallel division of labor between processes.
Finally the paper puts forth the Future of Grid Computing with a case-study and enlightens on how organizations can optimize computing and data resources, pool them for large capacity workloads, share them across networks and enable collaboration.
1.Introduction
Grid computing can mean different things to different individuals. The grand vision is often presented as an analogy to power grids where users (or electrical appliances) get access to electricity through wall sockets with no care or consideration for where or how the electricity is actually generated. In this view of grid computing, computing becomes pervasive and individual users (or client applications) gain access to computing resources (processors, storage, data, applications, and so on) as needed with little or no knowledge of where those resources are located or what the underlying technologies, hardware, operating system, and so on are.
With grid computing, an organization can transform its distributed and difficult-to-manage systems into a large virtual computer that can be set loose on problems and processes too complex for a single computer to handle efficiently. The problems to be solved can involve data processing, network bandwidth, or data storage. The systems linked in a grid might be in the same room or distributed around the world. They might be running different operating systems on many hardware platforms. They might even be owned by different organizations. Regardless of the depth of a grid's resources, the entire grid user experiences the processing resources of a very large virtual computer.
2.Definition of Grid Computing
With grid computing, an organization can transform its distributed and difficult-to-manage systems into a large virtual computer that can be set loose on problems and processes too complex for a single computer to handle efficiently. The problems to be solved can involve data processing, network bandwidth, or data storage. The systems linked in a grid might be in the same room or distributed around the world. They might be running different operating systems on many hardware platforms. They might even be owned by different organizations. Regardless of the depth of a grid's resources, the entire grid user experiences the processing resources of a very large virtual computer.
2.Definition of Grid Computing
Because it is an emerging technology, grid computing can mean different things to different people.
“Grid computing allows you to unite pools of servers, storage systems, and networks into a single large system so that you can deliver the power of multiple-systems resources to a single user point for a specific purpose.” To a user, data file, or an application, the system appears to be a single enormous virtual computing system.
3.Grid Network
3.1 A Simple Grid Network:
Illusion of a Virtual Computing Environment
Grid computing is the next logical step in distributed networking. A simple Grid Network contains a Grid Software which acts as an interface between any user (normal user, administrator) and the virtual computing environment (a superset of PC’s, Workstations, Super Computers).
3.2 Components of Grid Network:
Clusters, Workstations, Desktop PC’s, Super Computers contribute to the components of a grid. Each component might be an important component of a grid, but by itself doesn’t constitute a grid.
4.Evolution of GridIn fact, grid can be seen as the latest and most complete evolution of more familiar developments — such as distributed computing, the Web, peer-to-peer computing and virtualization technologies.
4.1 The Time Is Right:Many organizations feel that this is the right time to encourage Grid Computing for the following reasons:
- Unprecedented pressure to lower costs
- Inexpensive, commodity blade servers
- Inexpensive OS optimized for1-4CPUs
- Storage no longer tied to a single server
5.Functions
When you deploy a grid, it will be to meet a set of customer requirements. To better match grid computing capabilities to those requirements, it is useful to keep in mind the reasons for using grid computing. This section describes the most important capabilities of grid computing.
5.1 Optimal usage of resources:
Remote Applicability: The easiest use of grid computing is to run an existing application on a different machine.
Utility of un-used disk drive: Grid computing can be used to aggregate the unused storage into a much larger virtual data store.
Resource Utilization: Many resources such as CPU, Storage and so on, can be used with the principle of optimality.
5.2. Parallel CPU capacity:A CPU intensive grid application can be thought of as many smaller “sub jobs,” each executing on a different machine in the grid. For example, a job finishes 10 times faster if it uses 10 times the number of processors.
5.3 Virtual resources and virtual organizations for Collaboration:
In the past, distributed computing promised collaboration among a wider audience, and achieved it to some extent. Grid computing can take these capabilities to an even wider audience, while offering important standards that enable very heterogeneous systems to work together to form the image of a large virtual computing system offering a variety of resources.
5.4 Access to additional resources:
In addition to CPU and storage resources, a grid can provide access to other resources in additional numbers and/or capacity.
5.5 Resource balancing:
For applications that are grid-enabled, the grid can offer a resource balancing effect by scheduling grid jobs on machines with low utilization. Without a grid infrastructure, balancing decisions are difficult to prioritize and execute.
5.6 Reliability And Management:As there are various supplementary resources available for each resource, reliability is achieved to a greater extent.
The Grid software itself takes care of all the management among the various Grid components.
6.Grid Architecture
6.1 Layers of Grid Architecture:
• Fabric Layer: It provides access to some shared resources using Grid Protocols. Shared Resources can be computational resources, storage systems, catalogs, network resources, and sensors.
• Connectivity Layer: It defines the core communication and authentication protocols required for grid-specific network functions.
• Resources Layer: It defines protocols for secure negotiations, initiation and monitoring the control of sharing operations on individual resources. Information and management protocols define this layer.
• Collective Layer: It contains protocols and services that capture interactions among a collection of resources.
• Application Layer: User applications operate in this layer by using the services of other layers.
6.2 Grid Topology:
Intra grid:A typical intra grid topology exists within a single organization. The primary characteristics of an intra grid are a single security provider, bandwidth on the private network is high and always available, and there is a single environment within a single network.
Extra grid:Based on a single organization, the extra grid expands on the concept by bringing together two or more intra grids. An extra grid, typically involves more than one security provider, and the level of management complexity increases. The primary characteristics of an extra grid are dispersed security, multiple organizations, and WAN connectivity.
Inter grid:The primary characteristics of an inter grid include dispersed security, multiple organizations, and WAN connectivity. The data in an inter grid is global public data, and applications must be modified for a global audience.
6.3 Grid Software:
There are many aspects to grid computing that typically are controlled through software. These functions can be handled across a spectrum of very manual procedures to processes being handled through sophisticated software.
Donor software
Management Software
Communications Software
Schedulers Software
7.Grid Security
In a grid, the member machines are configured to execute programs rather than moving data. This makes an unsecured grid potentially fertile ground for viruses and Trojan horse programs. For this reason, it is important to understand which components of the grid must be rigorously secured. The high level grid security requirements are:
Authorization
Privacy
Confidentiality
Manageability
Firewall
8.Case Study
Task: To Find the Annual Income of all the employees of an organization that is wide spread through out the world.
Assignment: This task is assigned to a processor of a grid.
Assignment: This task is assigned to a processor of a grid.
Work-Flow:
• This processor initially checks if the task is too large for a single processor to handle.
• If so, distributes the task among various devices of the grid, here comes the aspect of Parallel CPU Capacity. The processors job is to collect the Incoming data files and this is simply done through WAN/Internet.
• The Annual Incomes of the employees starts getting accumulated in the disk drive of the processor. Once there is no more disk space left with it, it has a privilege of using the storage device that has been idle for the past few hours in the same grid network; the functional Application Exploiting under Utilized Resources is taken advantage of at this point.
• Suppose a high priority task has been assigned to this device, it has a capability to transfer the relatively low priority task to some other device of the network and can finish its high priority task as per the dead line, thereby Utilizing Resources.
9.Conclusion
It is important to know that grid is not a silver bullet that can take any application and run it a 1000 times faster without the need for buying any more machines or software. Grid computing appears to be a promising trend for three reasons:
(1) Its ability to make more cost-effective use of a given amount of computer resources.
(2) As a way to solve problems that can't be approached without an enormous amount of computing power.
(3) Because it suggests that the resources of many computers can be cooperatively and perhaps synergistically harnessed and managed as collaboration towards a common objective.
evolution in grid computing
GRID COMPUTING
CONTENTS:
CONTENTS:
1. ABSTRACT
2. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
3. TYPES OF GRID COMPUTING
4. ISSUES
5. APPLICATIONS
6. A SIMPLE HELLO WORLD EXAMPLE
7. DOWNSIDESOF GRID COMPUTING
8. CONCLUSION
1: ABSTRACT:
Grid computing is said to be the next big thing in IT. Research in grid computing is making rapid progress, owing to the increasing need for large-scale computation in the resolution of complex problems.
Clusters are, in a sense, the predecessors of grid technology. Clusters interconnect nodes through a local high-speed network, using commodity hardware, with the aim of reducing the costs of such infrastructures.
Supercomputers have been replaced by clusters of workstations in a large number of research projects.
Grids provide access to widely distributed computing and data resources, allowing data-intensive applications significantly improved data access, management and analysis. Nowadays there are a huge number of data intensive applications in several domains such as physics, climate modeling, biology/bio-informatics, addressing some of the most important current problems.
Computing grids are conceptually not unlike electrical grids. When you connect to the electrical grid, you don’t need to know where the power plant is or how the current gets to you. Grid computing uses middleware to coordinate disparate IT resources across a network, allowing them to function as a virtual whole.
Grids use a layer of middleware to communicate with and manipulate heterogeneous hardware and data sets. In some fields— astronomy, for example—hardware cannot reasonably be moved and is prohibitively expensive to replicate on other sites.
Grids address two distinct but related goals: providing remote access to IT assets, and aggregating processing power. The most obvious resource included in a grid is a processor, but grids also encompass sensors, data-storage systems, applications, and other resources.
Grids use a layer of middleware to communicate with and manipulate heterogeneous hardware and data sets. In some fields— astronomy, for example—hardware cannot reasonably be moved and is prohibitively expensive to replicate on other sites.
Many grids are appearing in the sciences, in fields such as chemistry, physics, and genetics, and cryptologists and mathematicians have also begun working with grid computing. Grid technology has the potential to significant impact other areas of study with heavy computational requirements, such as urban planning. Another important area for the technology is animation, which requires massive amounts of computational power and is a common tool in a growing number of disciplines included in a grid is a processor, but grids also encompass sensors, data-storage systems, applications, and other resources.
2: INTRODUCTION
TO COMPUTING:
Grid computing is an implementation in an enterprise computing taxonomy .It consists of family of technologies for opportunistically providing computing power from a pool of resources. Grid computing is opportunistic since it has to wait for resources to become available. The resources may include computing cycles, file and data storage, caching, network bandwidth, databases and application software. These resources can be distributed diversely on the globe .Provision of computer power means the methods and mechanisms for locating, authorizing, assembling, scheduling, releasing and accounting for resources and their usage.
For example compute grids share computational and data resources. And some grids share both and can also share network bandwidth, storage and caching resources and application software.
So the first dimension reflects the types of resources that the grid can use .Second dimension describes a grids geographic or administrative reach .Third dimension tells how the companies can get the resources. Fourth dimension reflects the partnerships between the Enterprises. The Fifth dimension reflects for what type of application a grid is used for biology, sensors or any other access.
So this proves that a Grid is multidimensional.
Coming to the Cluster, they are connected commonly connected to a high speed LANS. Clusters are usually deployed to improve speed and/or reliability over that provided by a single computer, while typically being much more cost-effective than single computers of comparable speed or reliability. They can be geographically distributed, but are often closely coupled in the same room.
Clusters can consist of heterogeneous processors and peripherals but they are homogeneous and use high performance and special purpose interconnection networks.
Fig: clusters in a university
But a CLUSTER is not a grid.
Since Computer Clusters require a much higher degree of centralized control, this point clearly distinguishes between a cluster and a grid.
Mainly the grid community focuses on issues such as Reliability, Security, Service and Quality Performance and Resource integration.
3:TYPES OF GRID COMPUTING:
1: Utility Computing:
Here, the main idea is to offer computing resources as an on-demand service to customers in much the same way that utilities offer electrical, gas, water, and telephone services to households and businesses. The utility computing service provider offers hosted computing resources.
One distinction is that the on-demand computing resources can comprise a grid in the service provider’s realm, and the grid can span several sites in the provider’s service area. Grid economies and scalability add a new dimension.
2: Autonomic computing:
Autonomic computing architectures monitor utilization and performance, tune and manage themselves, and adapt to failure. Some share resources and schedule tasks with other systems. The fundamental components of an autonomic computing system provide functions that computing grids will almost certainly need to operate effectively, such as the ability to recover lost computational subtasks.
As grids evolve, they might take on many of the characteristics of an autonomic computing system: Self-monitoring, diagnosis, and adaptability in their youth; sophisticated resource scheduling and forecasting; and perhaps a vertebrate-like involuntary autonomic nervous system at maturity. So the real issue is the extent to which a grid has adopted the characteristics of autonomic computing.
3: Peer-to-peer computing:
Peer-to-peer computing is one type of application that uses grid services to advertise, find, and share files.
The grid community tends to focus on top-down issues such as
1: resource integration,
2: performance,
3: reliability,
4: service quality, and
5: security.
The peer-to-peer community tends to focus on bottom up issues such as narrowly defined and specialized services, and support for tens of thousands of concurrent participants.
4: ISSUES:
The success of grid computing depends on fundamental issues in 2 main areas:
1: security
2: performance
Security:
Grids must deal with every security that any enterprise-owned or outsourced computing model faces. Security issues include secure authentication, access rights and privileges. Reliable and secure communications, perhaps with encryption, are also a requirement. Maintaining confidentiality and privacy will also be issues if you are transferring personal data.
Performance:
For a grid performance is the main key is to deliver nontrivial qualities of service “. Some grid services might fall short because
the scattering and gathering steps can incur significant delay. Grid computing tends to be opportunistic – it must wait for computing resources to become idle – which means that performance can be nondeterministic. Grid performances include resource availability and reliability, utilization and load, response time, delay and delay variation. Data Integrity is another consideration .
5: Applications:
1: Bio-Informatics:
Bioinformatics analysis of data produced by complete genome sequencing projects is one of the major challenges. Integrating up-to-date databanks and relevant algorithms is a clear requirement of such an analysis. Grid computing would be a viable solution to distribute algorithms and data, computing and storage resources for Genomics.
When bioinformatics grid server receives the computational requests from the client, it locates a suitable node in the grid to perform the mathematical computation according to the users’ requirement and task allocation rule, or integrates a virtual supercomputer to perform the larger computational requests from users.
2. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
3. TYPES OF GRID COMPUTING
4. ISSUES
5. APPLICATIONS
6. A SIMPLE HELLO WORLD EXAMPLE
7. DOWNSIDESOF GRID COMPUTING
8. CONCLUSION
1: ABSTRACT:
Grid computing is said to be the next big thing in IT. Research in grid computing is making rapid progress, owing to the increasing need for large-scale computation in the resolution of complex problems.
Clusters are, in a sense, the predecessors of grid technology. Clusters interconnect nodes through a local high-speed network, using commodity hardware, with the aim of reducing the costs of such infrastructures.
Supercomputers have been replaced by clusters of workstations in a large number of research projects.
Grids provide access to widely distributed computing and data resources, allowing data-intensive applications significantly improved data access, management and analysis. Nowadays there are a huge number of data intensive applications in several domains such as physics, climate modeling, biology/bio-informatics, addressing some of the most important current problems.
Computing grids are conceptually not unlike electrical grids. When you connect to the electrical grid, you don’t need to know where the power plant is or how the current gets to you. Grid computing uses middleware to coordinate disparate IT resources across a network, allowing them to function as a virtual whole.
Grids use a layer of middleware to communicate with and manipulate heterogeneous hardware and data sets. In some fields— astronomy, for example—hardware cannot reasonably be moved and is prohibitively expensive to replicate on other sites.
Grids address two distinct but related goals: providing remote access to IT assets, and aggregating processing power. The most obvious resource included in a grid is a processor, but grids also encompass sensors, data-storage systems, applications, and other resources.
Grids use a layer of middleware to communicate with and manipulate heterogeneous hardware and data sets. In some fields— astronomy, for example—hardware cannot reasonably be moved and is prohibitively expensive to replicate on other sites.
Many grids are appearing in the sciences, in fields such as chemistry, physics, and genetics, and cryptologists and mathematicians have also begun working with grid computing. Grid technology has the potential to significant impact other areas of study with heavy computational requirements, such as urban planning. Another important area for the technology is animation, which requires massive amounts of computational power and is a common tool in a growing number of disciplines included in a grid is a processor, but grids also encompass sensors, data-storage systems, applications, and other resources.
2: INTRODUCTION
TO COMPUTING:
Grid computing is an implementation in an enterprise computing taxonomy .It consists of family of technologies for opportunistically providing computing power from a pool of resources. Grid computing is opportunistic since it has to wait for resources to become available. The resources may include computing cycles, file and data storage, caching, network bandwidth, databases and application software. These resources can be distributed diversely on the globe .Provision of computer power means the methods and mechanisms for locating, authorizing, assembling, scheduling, releasing and accounting for resources and their usage.
For example compute grids share computational and data resources. And some grids share both and can also share network bandwidth, storage and caching resources and application software.
So the first dimension reflects the types of resources that the grid can use .Second dimension describes a grids geographic or administrative reach .Third dimension tells how the companies can get the resources. Fourth dimension reflects the partnerships between the Enterprises. The Fifth dimension reflects for what type of application a grid is used for biology, sensors or any other access.
So this proves that a Grid is multidimensional.
Coming to the Cluster, they are connected commonly connected to a high speed LANS. Clusters are usually deployed to improve speed and/or reliability over that provided by a single computer, while typically being much more cost-effective than single computers of comparable speed or reliability. They can be geographically distributed, but are often closely coupled in the same room.
Clusters can consist of heterogeneous processors and peripherals but they are homogeneous and use high performance and special purpose interconnection networks.
Fig: clusters in a university
But a CLUSTER is not a grid.
Since Computer Clusters require a much higher degree of centralized control, this point clearly distinguishes between a cluster and a grid.
Mainly the grid community focuses on issues such as Reliability, Security, Service and Quality Performance and Resource integration.
3:TYPES OF GRID COMPUTING:
1: Utility Computing:
Here, the main idea is to offer computing resources as an on-demand service to customers in much the same way that utilities offer electrical, gas, water, and telephone services to households and businesses. The utility computing service provider offers hosted computing resources.
One distinction is that the on-demand computing resources can comprise a grid in the service provider’s realm, and the grid can span several sites in the provider’s service area. Grid economies and scalability add a new dimension.
2: Autonomic computing:
Autonomic computing architectures monitor utilization and performance, tune and manage themselves, and adapt to failure. Some share resources and schedule tasks with other systems. The fundamental components of an autonomic computing system provide functions that computing grids will almost certainly need to operate effectively, such as the ability to recover lost computational subtasks.
As grids evolve, they might take on many of the characteristics of an autonomic computing system: Self-monitoring, diagnosis, and adaptability in their youth; sophisticated resource scheduling and forecasting; and perhaps a vertebrate-like involuntary autonomic nervous system at maturity. So the real issue is the extent to which a grid has adopted the characteristics of autonomic computing.
3: Peer-to-peer computing:
Peer-to-peer computing is one type of application that uses grid services to advertise, find, and share files.
The grid community tends to focus on top-down issues such as
1: resource integration,
2: performance,
3: reliability,
4: service quality, and
5: security.
The peer-to-peer community tends to focus on bottom up issues such as narrowly defined and specialized services, and support for tens of thousands of concurrent participants.
4: ISSUES:
The success of grid computing depends on fundamental issues in 2 main areas:
1: security
2: performance
Security:
Grids must deal with every security that any enterprise-owned or outsourced computing model faces. Security issues include secure authentication, access rights and privileges. Reliable and secure communications, perhaps with encryption, are also a requirement. Maintaining confidentiality and privacy will also be issues if you are transferring personal data.
Performance:
For a grid performance is the main key is to deliver nontrivial qualities of service “. Some grid services might fall short because
the scattering and gathering steps can incur significant delay. Grid computing tends to be opportunistic – it must wait for computing resources to become idle – which means that performance can be nondeterministic. Grid performances include resource availability and reliability, utilization and load, response time, delay and delay variation. Data Integrity is another consideration .
5: Applications:
1: Bio-Informatics:
Bioinformatics analysis of data produced by complete genome sequencing projects is one of the major challenges. Integrating up-to-date databanks and relevant algorithms is a clear requirement of such an analysis. Grid computing would be a viable solution to distribute algorithms and data, computing and storage resources for Genomics.
When bioinformatics grid server receives the computational requests from the client, it locates a suitable node in the grid to perform the mathematical computation according to the users’ requirement and task allocation rule, or integrates a virtual supercomputer to perform the larger computational requests from users.
2: SMALLPOX project:We intend to use grid computing to screen millions of potential anti-smallpox drugs against this target.
The Smallpox Research Grid uses a SETI-like model to analyze interactions between virus protein targets and a catalog of tens of millions of drug molecules. The Smallpox project can harness millions of computers belonging to people in over two hundred countries, all of whom will benefit from protection against smallpox.
By adding your CPU to the global grid, every time your computer is idle, you contribute your computing resources to the grid, accelerating the screening process while dramatically reducing the cost of the project.
The result is that rather than spending years to screen hundreds of thousands of molecules, it will be possible to screen hundreds of millions of molecules in just months.
This saves a large amount of system time and alters the use of Resources.
3: Grid Computing In SETI:
SETI, the search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence uses a huge number of Internet-connected computers to download the results during idle times.
As of late 2004, SETI had scavenged 1.83 million years of CPU time from 4.9 million users in 226 countries .It had used this grid to perform 4.5*10( power)21 floating-point operations Experts say that 10(power)21 -one sextillion-is the approximate number of grains of sand on all of Earth's beaches and deserts
It is just one order of magnitude shy of the estimated number of stars in the visible universe.
Some SETI observations have been conducted using the radio telescope
4: The Rice Genome Program: :
Bioinformatics research leads to a lot of information collected worldwide for which large databases should be maintained .Grid computing solves this problem. Grid computing would be a viable solution to distribute algorithms and data, computing and storage resources for Genomics.
Finding a single genome of Rice (scientific name Oryza sativa) can take a lot of time which measures up to months examining all the base pairs which are in millions These data is stored in data repositories. Hence we require a technology not only to visualize analyze DNA data but also the integration and exchange of information on a gene or coding regions from different international collaborative databases needs to be done in a careful and in a robust manner .Grid Technology Solves this problem.
Grid Technology enables sharing of bioinformatics data from different files by creating a virtual organization of data.
So the collection of databases generated during the research work on RICE is collected and maintained by a grid which helps in posing Queries on a particular type of Rice.
Here the user must provide the services they want providing constraints like family size , protein interactions ..etc .
6: A simple Hello world Example:
Let us consider some cases of web client-server applications like Video streaming Game serving, File downloading etc. So an approach to provide a scalable solution is to distribute the application even to the other servers that run the same application. A Network dispatcher is the entry point for an application but does not run the application , rather the servers which are connected onto the same LAN handle the workload and answers the queries of the client.
Let us consider an example: A network dispatcher (or) Front end server waits for client requests. When connected the client is given back a ticket and an application service IP address of where to connect.
The application answers HELLO WORLD when the client connects to it . The application is started on the application servers by the front end server.
The Executable for the client is Hello client and takes the front end server host name as parameter.
Grid computing used in Hello world Example .
7:Downsides of Grid Computing:
Being able to access distant IT assets—and have them function seamlessly with tools on different platforms—can be a boon to researchers, but it presents real security concerns to organizations responsible for those resources. An institution that makes its IT assets available to researchers or students on other campuses and in other countries must be confident that its involvement does not expose those assets to unnecessary risks. Similarly, directors of research projects will be reluctant to take advantage of the opportunities of a grid without assurances that the integrity of the project, its data, and its participants will be protected.
Another challenge facing grids is the complexity in building middleware structures that can knit together collections of resources to work as a unit across network connections that often span oceans and continents. Scheduling the availability of IT resources connected to a grid can also present new challenges to organizations that manage those resources. Increasing standardization of protocols addresses some of the difficulty in creating smoothly functioning grids, but, by their nature, grids that can provide unprecedented access to facilities and tools involve a high level of complexity.
A word of caution should be given to the overly enthusiastic. The grid is not a silver bullet that can take any application and run it a 1000 times faster without the need for buying any more machines or software. Not every application is suitable or enabled for running on a grid.
Some kinds of applications simply cannot be parallelized. For others, it can take a large amount of work to modify them to achieve faster throughput. The configuration of a grid can greatly affect the performance, reliability, and security of an organization’s computing infrastructure. For all of these reasons, it is important for us to understand how far the grid has evolved today and which features are coming tomorrow or in the distant future.
8: CONCLUSION:
A greater awareness of this area is needed so that people can make a direct contribution towards solving these problems by providing whatever spare computing resources they may have at their disposal (usually in the form of idle cycles). Grid computing is the future for Bio-Informatics which helps to create an epidemic free future for man kind and to solve long-term problems. Grids make research projects possible that formerly were impractical or unfeasible due to the physical location of vital resources.
Using a grid, researchers in Great Britain, for example, can conduct research that relies on databases across Europe, instrumentation in Japan, and computational power in the United States. Making resources available in this way exposes students to the tools of the profession, facilitating new possibilities for research and instruction, particularly at the undergraduate level.
Although speeds and capacities of processors continue to increase, resource-intensive applications are proliferating as well. At many institutions, certain campus users face ongoing shortages of computational power, even as large numbers of computers are underused. With grids, programs previously hindered by constraints on computing power become possible.
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